News from the Bronze Age

The task of archaeology is to decipher cultural, social and economic history on the basis of economic history on the basis of material remains. Written documents are sparse or non-existent. For the most part archaeological sources are located in the ground, partly built over by villages or towns, partly in the open countryside, on arable land and covered by humus. In addition to settlements and graves, hoards or deposits are an important source category in prehistory and early history. Generally speaking deposits of artefacts are generally referred to as hoards if no associated settlement or a grave can be proven. This phenomenon has many names: Hoard, deposits, votive or sacrificial find and treasure. The term hoard implies "guarding" and "guarding", but also "hiding" and "making inaccessible". These are objects that were deliberately deposited in times past have been deliberately placed.

Hoard finds are an extremely informative source, especially for the Bronze Age. The number of hoards is increasing remarkably, especially in this period. In the Saxony-Anhalt region, deposits of 200-300 objects are not uncommon. Here, the depositions of edged hatchets stand out in particular. Many of them are untreated and show what huge quantities of raw material were already in circulation in the 2nd millennium BC.

Hoard finds can be categorised according to the type and intention of deposition, but also according to their composition. Is the deposition reversible and accessible, e.g. in an earth pit, or irreversible, such as dumping in a bog? Were the objects deposited for profane reasons, e.g. to store raw materials or weapons, or is there evidence of a sacred background? "Handicraft tools, casting waste and, above all, faulty casts strongly suggest that the hoards were the property of the foundrymen [...]" (Huth 1997,194). The deposition of objects with traces of use are interpreted as "gifts to the gods". These hoards are often connected to "natural holy places" such as spring outlets or striking rock formations, such as the hoard of Thale, Ldk. Harz or the hoard of Peterstein from Wernigerode, Ldk. Harz.

The Neolithic period is characterised by migration. Several waves of large-scale migrations bring innovations such as animal husbandry, cereal cultivation, house building, stone cutting and the wheel and cart to Central Germany.
At the end of the Neolithic period, two archaeological cultures dominate Central Europe: the Corded Ware culture from the east and the Bell Beaker culture from the west. Both communities of ideas meet on our doorstep and bring with them further innovations, trade networks and other social norms. By the end of the 3rd millennium BC, metals such as copper were already being used, but a new alloy of copper and tin continued to gain in importance.

The Corded Ware culture (ca. 2,800-2,050 BC)
Riding high on horseback, the Corded Ware horsemen from the steppe conquered large areas of central Europe. Non-contiguous settlements can be found in central Russia, eastern and central Europe as far as Switzerland. The regional groups can be identified by pottery decoration, burial customs and axe forms. In Central Germany, the Corded Ware culture can almost only be recognised through the numerous cemeteries.

The Bell Beaker Culture (ca. 2,500-2,050 BC)
The Bell Beaker culture is a community of ideas that spread like islands across almost the whole of Europe and originated in Western Europe. The clan-like groups were linked more by ideas and knowledge than by ethnic components. Thanks to their metallurgical knowledge, the new settlers were respected and valued by the local communities. Despite the rain of exchange and certain adaptations to local customs, they retained their independence in both ritual and everyday life.

The Aunjetice culture (ca. 2,300-1,550 BC)
Named after the site of Únětice/Aunjetitz in Bohemia, the Aunjetitz culture is the first Early Bronze Age culture in Central Germany. Finds similar to those in our region have been documented in Bohemia, Moravia, Lower Austria and western Slovakia. This shows a lively exchange of raw materials, goods and ideas across natural borders. With the new material bronze, not only did new material goods appear, but far-reaching trade networks, concentrations of power and elites developed. Richly decorated tombs, known as princely tombs, were now built for a few outstanding individuals.

Due to the increasing demand for goods from afar, a close-knit communication network developed in the Bronze Age. Important trade goods such as copper, tin, salt and amber were traded over great distances - from the Baltic to the Aegean. The immediate prerequisites for the beginning of a metal age were the integration into the distribution network for alpine copper ores and the connection to the technical "know-how" spreading in south-eastern and southern Europe.

Infrastructure:
The distribution of artefacts themselves, but also wood finds from lakes and bogs, provide information about the transport system of the time, which included wheels, boats and wooden paths. In order to bring the various raw materials from their regions of origin to their destination, they had to be transported over long distances. The traders of the Bronze Age utilised an extensive network of routes, which included flat paths along the rivers as well as mountain paths that led over mountains and hills. They loaded their goods onto carts pulled by horses or oxen. Although there was no organised and developed road network, individual sections were planned. Bridges and boardwalks led across moors and swamps and connected dry sections with each other. Goods were shipped over very long distances. Finds from sunken ships provide evidence of a diverse range of goods.

The measure of all things!
Fine weights and scales were already being used to measure material values in the late second and early first millennium BC. The existence of precise units of weight made it possible for people at that time to represent exact value relationships between different goods such as metals, possibly also wool and grain, to calculate profits, create currencies and accumulate measured quantities of metal.
The European units of weight were very compatible, if not identical, with the predominant Eastern Mediterranean unit of weight at the time. Traders passed on metrological knowledge on a large scale. The emergence of these weight systems was the result of a global network that regulated itself from the bottom up. There was no international "authority" to check the accuracy of the weight systems.
Free enterprise a key driver of the global economy?
Merchants were able to interact, enter into profitable partnerships and thus bring wealth, knowledge and power back home.

The distribution of similar objects, skills and rituals across great distances is evidence of a lively international exchange. With increasing mobility, the spread of knowledge and skills accelerated over the course of the Bronze Age. skills. Through oral tradition, knowledge knowledge, techniques, images and customs could travel kilometres and survive for thousands of years.

With the exchange of material goods, experience and knowledge in a wide variety of areas were also passed on. This included the techniques for producing and processing the new material bronze. This knowledge was passed on orally from person to person, even without the basis of a common language. Instead, the craftsmen learnt through trial and error and observation.

Far-reaching international interaction and contacts can also be seen in the craftsmanship of the Nebra Sky Disc. The disc and the swords attached to the hoard are inlaid, a process that developed in the Near East. Images and signs also spread across cultural boundaries.

Bread loaf idols - a few centimetres full of meaning

Bread loaf idols are archaeological artefacts from the Bronze Age, usually made of low-fired or air-dried clay and shaped like a loaf of bread. They are usually only a few centimetres long and have geometric decorations. Their purpose is unknown, but the term idol is derived from their presumed ritual use. However, they may have been a kind of "delivery note" in the Early Bronze Age trade network.

The pastoral and agricultural way of life favoured the development from communal property in an egalitarian society to private property and a hierarchised social structure. Better living conditions, access to important raw materials, good connections to transport networks and exclusive luxury goods aroused desires.
Remains of fortifications and numerous artefacts bear witness to armed conflicts. The sword is regarded as a new type of offensive weapon. However, swords were not only weapons of war but also ceremonial weapons that warriors wore on festive occasions. These gleaming gold and often splendidly decorated pieces displayed the wealth and power of their owners.

Shields and helmets were often made of wood and leather and therefore mostly rotten. Bronze helmets were very rare and were worn by warriors in battle, but also symbolised power and dignity. Towards the end of the Bronze Age, breastplates and arm and greaves were made from thin sheet bronze. These were less suitable for practical use and were probably worn during ceremonies.

While tools and weapons were still made from flint, bone or antler at the beginning of the Bronze Age, the alloy of tin and copper soon proved to be a convincing choice. As in the Neolithic Age, axes were popular and versatile tools and are regarded as the most important woodworking implements.
Different shapes were produced depending on the intended use. Narrow, long axes were used as weapons, while short, wide axes were used as tools. In many cases, hatchets were also used as trade currency, offerings or status symbols.

Bronze: 9 parts copper and 1 part tin. This new alloy was convincing! Bronze is harder, has a lower melting point, better casting properties and impresses with its radiant lustre. Thanks to technical expertise, the casting process made it possible to produce tools and weapons faster and in large quantities. Serial production had begun.

The growing demand for copper required intensive mining. Copper ores were collected directly from the surface or mined in underground tunnels and shafts. Tin ore and salt were also extracted in this way. Tin often had to be imported. In contrast to copper, tin deposits were very rare in Europe.

In addition to the casting trade, there was also a progressive professionalisation and specialisation in other trades. For example, wagons with innovative, stable spoked wheels and swivelling front axles were developed for the safe transport of goods.

Casting moulds
Temperatures of almost 1000 degrees are required to combine copper and tin. The now liquid bronze was poured into the moulds. Depending on the object, different casting techniques and moulds were used.
Objects that are very similar come from permanent moulds. Here, the negative of the desired object was painstakingly ground into sandstone. Once the bronze had hardened, the mould was not destroyed but reused. In this way, a large number of objects could be produced in a shorter time. This technique was particularly suitable for simple objects such as flat axes, sickles or dagger and knife blades.

Bronze ingots were produced for stock. They were either melted down later for further processing or offered as merchandise.

In the Bronze Age, plant fibres such as flax and hemp, as well as sheep's wool, were used to make fabrics. As in the Neolithic Age, the material was spun into threads with a hand spindle and then woven into a large cloth on vertical looms. Numerous finds of spinning whorls and loom weights bear witness to a flourishing textile industry. However, looms or items of clothing are extremely rare.

Girls and women wore short skirts or long woollen dresses, as well as a blouse with half-length sleeves. An additional shawl could also be worn as a head covering. The shawls were fastened with a pair of large garment pins.

Men wore a smock made from a rectangular piece of fabric wrapped tightly around the body as an undergarment. The upper corners were either buttoned or knotted. Men also wore a belt made of leather or wool. In addition
They also wrapped themselves in large cloaks, which were held together in front of the chest with a garment pin or clasp. Simple woollen caps served as headgear.

Men and women adorned themselves equally - often with shiny golden bronze objects. Jewellery made of amber, glass or gold, on the other hand, was rarer and reserved for a wealthier clientele.
Rings or chains made of thick bronze or gold wires were worn around the neck. The surface was sometimes skilfully decorated with grooves or carvings. Narrower gold or bronze threads were rolled into flat spirals and strung on thin strings or threads and complemented with glass or amber beads.

Bracelets, anklets and finger rings were an integral part of jewellery. In addition to jewellery worn directly on the body, people also decorated their clothing. These pieces were used to hold cloaks or items of clothing together and could also have been made from precious materials and richly decorated. The ornaments are often reminiscent of sun motifs - typical of Bronze Age symbolism.

The accumulation of personal wealth and power favoured the development of a hierarchically structured society. The distinction between social classes extended into death, as can be seen in the furnishings of the graves. The individual status of the deceased was emphasised by the addition of high-quality bronze artefacts.

The artistically crafted objects bear witness to the fact that specialised craftsmen with a high level of skill already existed at this time. Those who did not possess bronze obtained it through trade with other settlements; the same applies to amber and salt. With the increasing specialisation in crafts and trade, different professions emerged, but also hierarchies: There are rulers and ruled.

With the beginning of bronze production, new types of weapons such as short or full-handled swords were manufactured. In addition to peaceful trade, there were conflicts of interest with violent clashes. Mighty fortifications made of wood or stone were erected to protect against attacks. Peasants were trained as warriors.

House construction
The Bronze Age longhouses, measuring almost 30 metres in length, were used as multi-generational homes and offered plenty of space for working, living and storage. In colder days or regions, pets also found shelter here. However, there is also evidence of smaller buildings in the settlements, usually arranged in groups. In addition to the residential buildings, there were also storage facilities, e.g. for food. Storage houses were erected in post construction to protect the harvest from predators. Pit houses, comparable to a cellar, proved to be extremely useful for preserving food. The basic structure of the buildings consisted of thick tree trunks, filled with twigs and insulated with a thick layer of clay. The roof consisted of several layers of straw. A construction method that had already proven itself in the Neolithic Age.

Agriculture and animal husbandry
In the Bronze Age, agriculture and animal husbandry remained the mainstay of life. Technical progress, such as the cattle-drawn plough, made the heavy field work easier. In addition to cattle, pigs, sheep and goats, horses were also kept. These mounts had a considerable influence on the mobility of Bronze Age people.
People also fished on rivers, lakes and seas in the Bronze Age. Fish and meat could be better preserved and stored with salt. The first beehives were used by beekeepers to produce honey. Occasionally, people expanded their food supply by gathering wild fruits. Hunting only played a subordinate role in providing for the community, but served as a special event on festive occasions.

Farmers and experts
In the Bronze Age, people lived together in large families of around 10 people. Some families lived in large, isolated houses, far away from other people. Others lived in small villages with several other families.
families together. Within a settlement, there were people who were richer and more powerful than others. This can be seen from their graves, for example. These deceased were buried in large burial mounds and were given splendid bronze or gold grave goods. They were probably leaders of the community during their lifetime or controlled important raw materials such as salt, copper, tin, amber or gold and their trade routes.
The majority of the population lived as simple farmers. Some of them specialised in the processing of bronze. There were ore prospectors who specialised in mining ore, miners who extracted mineral resources, metalworkers who cast bronze into moulds, blacksmiths who processed the metal and traders who traded these products.

"An invaluable find in the middle of a police operation"

Getting to the bottom of the disc ...
The Nebra disc complex has been intensively studied by scientists and renowned research institutions since 2002. The investigations include the chemical and physical characterisation of the material using X-ray fluorescence analysis, synchrotron XRF, X-ray diffraction, computer tomography, isotope/mass spectroscopy, metallography, light and scanning electron microscopy and much more. The focus is on questions relating to production technology, the history of production and the authenticity and origin of the objects and their raw materials.

Where does the material come from?
The hoard found in Nebra consists of around four kilograms of bronze and 50 grams of gold. Where did the material come from? Although there are copper deposits in the region, the research results point to extensive long-distance trade. The traces lead to other European countries, Austria and England. The copper used in the alloy of all the objects comes from a deposit located in the Eastern Alps. There were several copper mines there around 1,600 BC. The Mitterberg near Bischofshofen in Salzburger Land is considered to be the largest.
Gold and tin, on the other hand, were traded from Cornwall, located in the south-western tip of England. The sky disc was then made in central Germany.

Production technology
We know of large quantities of bronze finds from the 3rd and 2nd millennium BC in Europe, but very little evidence of the casting and smithing trades. At the beginning of the Bronze Age, only a few small clay nozzles or casting moulds have survived in central Germany, such as those from Oberröblingen, Mansfeld-Südharz. Remains of furnaces or tools such as hammers and anvils are unfortunately still missing.
The blacksmith drove the raw soft bronze casting cake into a disc shape with a diameter of 32 centimetres. This was certainly not without its difficulties, but the skilled craftsman managed to work the unruly, tough metal with great finesse. New processing techniques are associated with the new material. For example, inlaying, the insertion of coloured precious metal sheets or wires into a different base material. At the time the Nebra Sky Disc was made, the inlay technique was already highly developed in the eastern Mediterranean region and was used with great skill. This knowledge found its way to central Germany with the travelling merchants. Here, the gold plates of the Sky Disc were only attached to the edges. Using tools made of hard bronze, hollows were cut into the disc, the gold plates were inserted into them and then clamped in place by hammering the bronze edge smooth.
The Sky Disc was not made in a single operation. It was modified time and again, with different generations of craftsmen leaving their own signature. Over its lifetime, the disc was repeatedly adapted to changing ritual needs and world views.

Phase 1
2nd half of the 18th century BC
The original version of the disc shows a sky with 32 stars, a waxing crescent moon and either a full moon or a sun. All celestial bodies are placed at regular distances from each other. The recognisable cluster of seven closely spaced stars shows the Pleiades. The freshly crafted bronze initially shone in a golden colour. A midnight blue patina may have been artificially created using fermented urine, for example. The gold objects would have been properly staged.

Phase 2
1st half of the 17th century BC
In the next phase, two gold arches were attached to the edge of the Sky Disc. One of them is missing today, but its position can be recognised by a clear attachment groove. The star next to the missing arch was moved before it was attached. The reliefs of two other stars are clearly recognisable under the remaining arch. Both stars were removed before the arch was attached.

Phase 3
Middle of the 17th century BC
In the third phase of the Nebra Sky Disc, there is another striking gold ornament that is clearly different from the others: the grooved arch at the lower edge. This gold plate cannot be explained by any celestial phenomenon. Due to its shape and decoration, it can be interpreted as a ship, a sky barge. Propelled by oars, the sky barge sails along the horizon.

Phase 4
End of the 17th century BC
During this phase, the edge of the bronze disc was pierced. It is assumed that the disc was once attached to a base made of organic material. The perforations were made without regard to the gold ornamentation. Obviously there was now a greater focus on the presentation, for example as a standard.

Phase 5
around 1,600 BC
3,600 years ago, the Nebra Sky Disc was deposited together with carefully selected other bronzes. There is clear evidence that a horizon arch had already been removed before the disc was deposited. The disc was obviously also separated from its carrier material. However, there is no evidence that the disc was attached through the holes.

Function
Created as a burial site, it was a landmark visible from afar for thousands of years - including a boundary marker, generals' mound and place of judgement. Until the 19th century, it characterised the surrounding landscape over a wide area and marked the border between Saxony and Prussia from the 18th century onwards.

Archaeology
Extensive archaeological investigations carried out between 2014 and 2018 revealed that the enormous monument had a diameter of around 75 m and a height of around 12.5 m by around 1800 BC. This makes it the largest burial monument known to us from this period in continental Europe.

Largest gold find
The Bornhöck is also associated with the largest gold find to date. It originally consisted of 13 objects, including jewellery and an unusual axe. Extensive research revealed that his biography resembles a criminal case.

Centre of wealth
The Bornhöck was intended to be a beacon visible from afar - in a region south-east of Halle (Saale), which archaeologists recognise as one of the most outstanding of the Early Bronze Age due to the many hoard finds with hundreds of axes, staff dagger blades and rings.

The lord of the disc
The size and effort required to erect a burial mound such as the Bornhöck without modern technology testifies to the power and influence of one or more rulers.
rulers. The world-famous Nebra Sky Disc was also created in this society. As it may have been in use for around 100-200 years, it was created around the same time as the Bornhöck. It can be assumed that the prince buried in the Bornhöck may have commissioned or even produced the Sky Disc.